A2 Level- Infradian and Ultradian Rhythms

Infradian and Ultradian Rhythms

Ultradian- spans less than a day. Infradian- lasts more than a day but less than a year.

Ultradian Rhythms (less than a day)

• ·        Sleep stages. 5 stages of sleep. First four is NREM sleep (non-rapid eye movement) and fifth stage is REM sleep (rapid eye movement). One sleep cycle goes through all five stages and 90 minutes. Stage 1 and 2- Change in the electrical activity of the brain. Brain produces typical pattern called beta wave. The more relaxed you get the slower your brain waves get and more regular, greater amplitude, alpha wave. As you go to sleep waves slow down further greater amplitude, theta wave, accompanied by short bursts of activity. Stage 3 and 4 have slower delta waves. These stages are called slow wave sleep (SWS). This stage hard to wake someone up. In deep sleep (SWS) body's physiological 'repair work' is undertaken and important biochemical processes such as growth hormones. Cycles continue in the night SWS getting shorter and REM getting longer.

• ·        Basic rest-activity cycle. Same 90 minute clock but now ticking through the day. Basic rest activity cycle (BRAC). Friedman and Fisher 1967 observed eating and drinking behaviour in a group of psychiatric patients over periods of 6 hrs. Found clear 90-minute cycle in eating and drinking behaviour.

Infradian Rhythms (more than a day less than a year)

• ·        Monthly cycles- Female Menstrual cycle: caused by fluctuating hormone levels to regulate ovulation. Pituitary gland releases hormones which stimulate a follicle in one ovary to ripen an egg, triggers release of oestrogen. Once ripened, ruptured follicle secret's progesterone. Causes lining of womb to prepare for preg, increasing blood supply. 2 weeks after ovulation + no preg= reduced progesterone, causes lining to shed. Monthly rhythm in men: Empson 21 males had body temps and alertness measured over 42-102 days. Evidence in males for periodic variation, cycle of 20 days.  

• ·        Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)- Infradian rhythms can occur once a year. Such as this depressive condition. Depressed during the winter because more darkness means less melatonin and less serotonin. Recover during summer, more melatonin, more serotonin. Research studies show melatonin and serotonin are secreted when its dark.

 Evaluation

• ·        AO2 SLEEP STAGES: Issue in REM sleep studies is assumption that it is dreaming  sleep. Dement and Kleitman 1957 first demonstrated the link. They woke participants when their brain waves were characteristic of REM sleep, found high dream reporting. However, found dreams recorded outside REM sleep and sleepers in REM sleep not always dreaming. Hobson and McCarley 1977 proposed dreams are psychological read-outs of random electrical signals typical of REM sleep. However this based on erroneous assumption that REM activity= dreaming.

• ·        AO2 BASIC REST-ACTIVITY CYCLE- shows sleep stages are part of a continuum of 90-min cycle throughout the day within circadian rhythm. It's importance: form of timing to ensure the biological processes in the body work in unison.

• ·        AO2 MENSTRUATION: Exogenous Cues- Normally governed by an endogenous system. However can be controlled by exogenous cues. Research shown when several women live together w/o oral contraceptives they tend to menstruate at the same time. Russell et al 1980- sweat were collected from one group of women and rubbed on the upper lip of women in a second group. Groups were kept separate yet their cycles became synchronised with individual donor. Suggests the synchronisation of menstrual cycles can be affected by pheromones (chemicals in sweat). They act like hormones but have affect on the bodies of people close by rather than on the body of the producer

• ·        AO2 MENSTRUATION: Consequences of the menstrual cycle- Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a disorder that affect many women the week before menstruation. Symptoms include: depression, mood swings and aggression. Research shows PMS is physiological rather than psychological. For years PMS was dismissed as a psychological problem (it's in your head), now we know it's physiological (with psychological symptoms) caused by hormonal changes related to Infradian rhythms. Dalton found that PMS was associated with an increase in accidents, suicides and crime.

• ·        AO2 SEASONAL AFFECTIVE DISORDER- Explained in terms of being a natural outcome of Infradian rhythms, but alternatively could be the consequence of a disrupted circadian rhythm. In UK, seasons change from summer to winter, circadian rhythms may be thrown out of phase. People go to bed earlier because darker earlier. Biological system gets the impression that time is shifting, similar to jet lag.

 IDA

• ·        AO3 A DETERMINIST APPROACH: PMS has been used as a legal defence. example: Ms English ran over her married love and murdered him after argument. Charged with murder but placed on probation because it was argued in court her actions were related to severe PMS. Dr Katharina Dalton (GP, researcher in PMS) acted as expert witness and argued severe PMS was akin to a mental disorder, individuals should not be held responsible for actions. Suggests biological rhythms may be beyond our control. OTOH there is evidence we can 'will' out biological rhythms to change. Born et al found people who were told to wake up at earlier times of night than usual has higher levels of stress hormone ACTH (contributed to waking up process) than normal at the time and they woke up earlier.
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• ·        AO3 REAL WORLD APPLICATION: The understanding of the role of darkness in SAD has lead to effective therapies, notably phototherapy. Uses very strong light in the evening and/or early morning to change levels of melatonin and serotonin. Lights are between 6,00 and 10,000 lux (equiv to daylight). SAD suffers reported that daily use is enough to relieve them of their feelings of lethargy[1], depression and other symptoms. However questioned whether due to placebo effect. Eastman found placebo condition (fake non-iron generator) was less effective but 32% did improve with placebo alone.

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[1] extreme lack of energy or vitality. 

A2 Level-Social Learning Theory

Aggression

Social Learning Theory: Bandura and Walters 1963

• ·        Bandura and Walters believed aggression could not be explained using the learning theory. (Direct experience responsible).

• ·        Social learning theory suggest we learn by observing others.

• ·        We learn the specifics of aggressive behaviour: (form it takes, how often it is enacted, the situations that produce it and the targets).

• ·        The role of biological factors is not completely ignored in this theory

• ·        Person's biological make-up creates a potential for aggression, and it is the actual expression of aggression that is learned.

• ·        Bandura's study The BOBO dolls illustrates this theory.

THE BOBO DOLL STUDIES- Albert Bandura 1961.

Research support for the STL comes from series of studies. Bandura et al 1961. Children observing aggressive and non-aggressive adult models and then tested for imitative learning in absence of models.

• ·        Male and female children. 3-5. Half exposed to adult models interacting aggressively to life-sized bobo doll. Half non-aggressive.

• ·        Model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts towards the dolls. (striking head, kicking). Verbal aggression e.g. POW

• ·        After, children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with. The taken to room with bobo dolls.

• ·        Children in the aggression one reproduced physical verbal behaviour like the model. Children in non-aggressive showed no aggression towards doll.

• ·        1/3 children in aggressive condition repeated models behaviour. None of children in non-aggressive made such remarks. Boys reproduced more imitative physical than girls, no difference in imitation of verbal aggression.

Conclusion: Children's do acquire aggressive responses as result of watching others. Doesn't tell why a child would be motivated to perform same behaviour in absence of model. Later study Barbara and Walters 1963, children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts showed high levels of aggression in their play. Those who show model punished showed low level. Those in no reward or punishment were in between 2 levels of aggression. Bandura called this type vicarious learning- they were learning about likely consequences of actions, adjusting their behaviour accordingly.

Social Learning Theory

• ·        Observation- Children primarily learn their aggressive responses through observation. Watching role models behaviours and imitating. Against Skinner's operant conditioning theory (reinforcement). Bandura -> observing role models. They also watch and learn the consequences of aggression by watching reinforcement/punishments. This is vicarious reinforcement.  Children see aggressive behaviour at home/school/TV. Observing the consequences child learns what is appropriate (effective) conduct . The learn the behaviours and whether/when they are worth repeating.

• ·        Mental representation- Bandura: In order for social learning to take place, child must for mental representation of events in their social environments. Must represent possible rewards and punishments for their aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcomes. When opportunity comes child will display learned behaviour AS LONG AS expectation of reward is greater than expectation of punishment.

• ·        Production of behaviour- 1) Maintenance through direct experience- If child rewarded (praise from others) likely to repeat same action in similar future situations. Child with history successfully bulling -> attach value to aggression. 2) Self-efficacy expectancies - Children develop confidence in the ability to carry out necessary aggressive actions. Children who are bad at this behaviour, have less confidence (low self efficacy) to use aggression. Turn to other means.

Evaluation

• ·        AO2:Research support.  The role of punishment- In Bandura and Walter's study, did children prevent learning or prevent performance because of the punishment? To test Bandura 1965 repeated study but this time children were rewarded for performing model's aggressive behaviour. Result: all groups performed imitative acts. Conclusion: learning does take place regardless of reinforcements but production of behaviour is related to selective reinforcements. Applicability to adults- Involves children, does SLT explain adult behaviour? Phillips 1986 found daily homicide rates in US always increased following major boxing match. Views were imitating behaviour. SLT evident in adults as well.

• ·        AO2: STRENGTHS- Role of vicarious learning- SLT can explain aggressive behaviour in the absence of direct reinforcement. (Unlike operant conditioning). Although Bandura et al's (1963) participants behaved more aggressively after observing, at no point were the children directly rewarded for any action. Consequently, the concept of vicarious learning is necessary to explain these findings. Individual differences in aggressive behaviour- SLT can explain differences in aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour both between and within individuals.  Wolfgang and Ferracuti's 'culture of violence' theory proposes that in large societies, some subcultures develop norms that sanction violence to a greater degree than the dominant culture. Some cultures may model non-aggressive behaviour, producing people that show low levels of aggression. (cultural differences IDA). Differences within individuals can be related to selective reinforcement and context-dependant learning. People respond differently because they observe that aggression is rewarded in some situations and not others. i.e. they learn behaviours that are appropriate to particular contexts.

• ·        AO2: CULTURAL DIFFERENCES- SLT can be used to explain cultural differences in aggression. Among the !Kung San of the Kalahari Desert, aggression is rare. This is because of the child rearing practises: when 2 children argue/fight parents neither reward or punish, but physically separate then and try it distract them to other things. (no model of aggression). Parents don't use physical punishment and aggressive postures are avoided by society as a whole. (Absence of direct reinforcement). Little motivation for !Kung Sun children to acquire aggressive behaviours.

• ·        AO2 VALIDITY - Bandura's study, demand characteristics, possible children were aware of what was expected of them. Nobel reports that one child arriving at the laboratory experiment said: "Look Mummy there's the doll we have to hit".  Also, studies focus on aggression towards a doll rather than a real person (who hits back). However Bandura responded to this criticism and produced a film of young woman beating up a live clown. When children went to other room there was a live clown and they punched, kicked and hit him with hammers.

IDA

• ·        AO3 ETHICAL ISSUES IN SLT RESEARCH- Ethical issues make it difficult to test SLT experimentally. Exposing children to aggressive behaviour with the knowledge that they may reproduce it in their own behaviour raises ethical issues concerning the need to protect physical and psychological harm. Bobo doll study would no long be allowed. Difficult to test the experimental hypotheses about the social learning of aggressive behaviour in children and consequently difficult to establish the scientific credibility of the theory. 

Is the idea of a 'sad clown' actually true?

Study finds that comedians are more prone to have 'high levels psychotic personality traits' 

A new recent study has found that that comedians may be more inclined to "high levels of psychotic personality traits". According to research published in the British journal of Psychiatry people with "unusual personal structure" with traits similar to bipolar is surreptitious to making people laugh. This was backed-up with statistical data gathered from 500 comedians who completed s questionnaire. However this may not be entirely reliable as the comedians may of faked their answered due to demand characteristics. 

There have been comedians who have openly reported their experiences with mental health, such as: Stephen Fry, David Walliams and Paul Merton, to name a few. 

Retired professor of experimental psychology at Oxford University, Gordon Claridge stated "Obviously not all comedians are like this, but the trend does seem these personality traits are more common. It is that idea of the sad clown". 

Stand up comedian Juliette Barton who has a history of tackling mental health problems responded, "These findings make sense to me. There is something about the solo comedy performers... quite a few I know have experience with mental health issues. If you do have issues, then comedy is often the way of getting you through." 

Logically it would make sense if comedians had a link with bipolar as comedy mimics the ability to combine "ideas or categories of thought to form new and original connections". The results of the questionnaire show that comedians scored pretty high on personality traits such as being unsociable, depressive as well as extrovert maniac traits. 

In conclusion I found these results quite shocking at first, however after giving it some thought it made more sense to me. It is difficult for me to believe that someone who is so happy/funny on stage may be suffering from depressive conditions. 

Good-looking men are more selfish?!

Recent study finds that good-looking men are more likely to be selfish

If you are a male, who is often regarded as good-looking, you may be more likely to be selfish. A research team from Brunel University put a theory from evolutionary psychology to the test. It is said that attractive people are more inclined to take control in social competitions. Funnily enough the study fails to find similar results with women.

The researchers gathered a groups of 125 males and females and measured their bodies using a 3D body scanner. They rated their attractiveness based on slimness, waist-chest ratio for men and waist-hip ratio for women. The also asked a group of raters for their opinions on the body scans of the participants and to rater their attractiveness. Later, the participants were then asked to fill out a personality questionnaire. The questionnaire defined their personality traits such as: selfishness and attitudes to inequality.

Michael Price who is a lead investigator and lecturer at Brunel explained the findings further. "We found that attractive men tended to be less egalitarian and less generous. but that wasn't the case with attractive women. Our results show that in fact we may be justified in expecting more attractive men to behave in ways that are less favorable to economic and social equality. The results suggest that better looking men may be biased towards beings more selfish."

Depression and the Hippocampus

Depression said to be linked to smaller hippocampus

Recent study has found people with recurrent depression have a smaller hippocampus. 

The hippocampus is the part of them brain which forms new memories. It has recently been founds that people who have recurring depression were found to have a smaller hippocampus compared to people without depression. Dr Ian Hickie, co-director of the brain and mind research has stated: “This large study confirms the need to treat first episodes of depression effectively, particularly in teenagers and young adults, to prevent the brain changes that accompany recurrent depression"

The study was conducted by scholars at BMRI from the University of Sydney. This study was classed as the largest international study to compare the brain waves of people with and without depression. This study has helped scientists to understand how to treat depression effectively when it first occurs.

The researchers used MRI scans to study the brains of the patients. They also collected data from 1728 people with major depression as well as 7199 people who were healthy. The study includes people from Europe, the US and Australia.

The study has shown that people with major depression, during the first stages, have a smaller hippocampus than healthy people. However people with the first episode of major depression didn't have smaller hippocampus' than healthy people. This shows that the changes are caused because of the gradual effect of depressive illness' on the brain.

Phobia's could be genetic!

Phobia's may occur due to our genes! 

Scared of spiders? Blame your great grandmother! Recent studies run by scientists at the Emory University School of Medicine have found evidence to the hypothesis that memories can be passed down to later generations due to genetic switches. This then allows the children to inherit these phobias which may trigger later on in their lives. 

Researches find that phobia's could be inherited from our family ancestors

New research has found that phobia's could be biologically passed down through generations. This is a cause of chemical changes that occur in one's DNA which is then later passed onto the offspring. Researchers have found that mice can pass on learned information on traumas or stressful experiences. Although these results can be linked to human behaviour we cannot 100% generalise these results to humans, however it does provide a base of a future hypothesis for scientist's to further discover. 

Thus according to these results a fear of spiders could in fact be an inherited defense mechanism used by previous generations. Dr Brian Dis says "We have begun to explore an under-appreciated influence on adult behaviour ancestral experience before conception. From a transnational perspective, our results allow us to appreciate how the experiences of a parent, before even conceiving offspring, markedly influence both structure and function in the nervous system of subsequent generations".

In the study conducted, researchers trained mice to to be afraid of cherry blossom by giving them electric shocks when exposed to the smell. The mice then associate the shock's to the small (classical conditioning). This causes the research to have serious ethical issues. In my opinion it is vile to treat animals this way for the purpose of scientific research. Anyhow, they found that the mice's offspring were also afraid on the cherry blossom compared to other odors. The following generation also had similar reactions. When analysing the structure within the mice's brains, the researchers found changes within the areas which detected the odor. This gives evidence to the hypothesis: experiences can somehow be transferred from the brain to the genome, causing them to be passed on to later generations.  

A2 level- The Circadian Rhythm

Biological rhythms: The Circadian Rhythm

A2 level revision notes

Biological rhythms are called cyclical changes in the way biological systems behave. They are controlled by: Internal biological clock (Endogenous pacemakers) and External cues from the environment (exogenous zeitgebers).  

• ·        Circadian Rhythms -the rhythms that last around 24-hours. They are physical, mental and behavioural changes, responding to light and environment in an organism’s environment. Circadian comes from the Latin ‘Circa’ (about) plus ‘dies’ (a day). The two well-known Circadian rhythms are the sleep-wake cycle and the body temperature cycle.

• ·        The sleep-wake cycle -controlled by the body’s circadian rhythms. One might think the reason you go to sleep is because of the changes in daylight. You feel sleepy when it gets dark and are awoken when sunlight comes through the curtain, or your sleep-wake cycle is based on your knowledge of what time of day it is. These are external cues called exogenous zeitgebers. However there is also an internal (endogenous) clock. This clock is free running i.e. works without external cues (exogenous zeitgebers). Sets a cycle of about 24-25 hours. In normal circumstances the internal clock does not work alone. There are external cues (daylight) which help adjust the internal clock to the environment in which you live. These studies show circadian rhythms persist despite isolation from natural light, which proves an existence of an endogenous clock. However this research also shows that external cues are importance as the clock was not perfectly accrual: varied from day to day.

• ·        Core body temperature -one if the best indicators of the circadian rhythms. Lowest at 4.30am (36c), highest at 6.00pm (38c). There is a slight trough just after lunch. Not just due to effect of having lunch- also occurs even when people don’t eat. In many countries, have an afternoon siesta (sleep in hot country) is related to this dip in body temperature. Temperature dip is a bi-daily rhythm, example of the ultradian rhythms. 

• ·        Hormones – Hormone production follow a circadian rhythm. Cortisol lowest around midnight and peaks at 6.00am. Cortisol produced when stressed but also related to making us alert when we wake up. Explains if we are awoken at 4.00am is it hard to think clearly. Because cort levels are not sufficiently high for alertness. Melatonin and growth hormones also have clear circadian rhythm, peaking at midnight. 

Evaluation

• ·        AO2 RESEARCH SUPPORT: FREE-RUNNING RHYTHM- Michael Siffre, French cave explorer, conducted a series of studies to find evidence for free-running circadian rhythms. He has spent long periods of time living underground in order to study his own biological rhythms. Whilst he was underground he had no external cue’s to guide his rhythms. (Clock, daylight, radio). He woke, ate, and slept whenever he felt like it. The only thing influencing his behaviour was his internal ‘clock’. (1^st occasion) 61 days in the Southern Alps in 1962. He resurfaced on September 17^th thinking the date was the 20^th of August! (2^nd occasion) He spent 6 months in a Texan cave in 1975. His natural circadian rhythm settled down to just over 24 hours but would sometimes change to as much as 48 hours. In 1999 he was interested in the effects of ageing on biological rhythms (60 years old). He found that his internal clock was slower compared to when he was a young man. He also found his sleep patterns had changed. His study was supported by other studies: Aschoff and Wever 1976, Place participants in underground WW2 bunker. No environmental and social time cues. Found more participants displayed circadian rhythms between 24-25 hours. Some were as long as 29. This shows the cycle operates in the absence of external cues and natural free running cycle is about 24-25 hours.
• ·        AO2 RESEARCH SUPPORT: IMPORTANCE OF EXTERNAL CUES- Folkard 1985 conducted an experiment to see if external cues could be used to override the internal clock. 12 participants lived in a cave for 3 weeks, no natural light and other time cues. They agreed to go to bed when clock indicated 11.45pm and get up when indicated 7.45am. Initially the clock ran normally but gradually quickened until it was indicating passing of 24 hours when only 22 had passed. Beginning: circadian cycle matched the clock. When quickened their rhythm ceased to match the clock and continued to flow a 24-hour cycle rather than the 22 imposed by the experiment. (Apart from 1). Conclusion: Circadian rhythm can only be guided to a limit extent by external cues. As soon as experiment was over participants took days to resynchronise their cycles to the available external time cues (clocks, daylight). Showing influence of external cues.
• ·        AO2 SLEEP WAKE CYCLE: METHODOLOGY- Early research suffered from a flaw, when estimating the free running cycle. Participants were isolated from variables such as clocks and daylight. However they were not isolated from artificial light. It was thought that dim light (contrast to daylight) would not affect the circadian rhythm. Recent research shows this may not be true. Czeisler et al 1999 altered participant circadian rhythms down to 22hours and up to 28 hours just using dim lighting.
• ·        AO2 SLEEP WAKE CYCLE: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES- 1) Cycle length. Czeisler et al 1999 found circadian cycles in different people can vary from 13-65 hours. 2) Cycle onset. Individuals appear to be innately different in terms of when their circadian cycles reaches their peak. Duffy et al 2000 found morning people prefer to rise early and go to bed early (6am-10pm). Evening people wake and go to bed later (10am-1am).

Serotonin may trigger Phobias!

Too much serotonin may trigger social phobias

Feeling good may have side effects!

Recently it has been noted by psychologists that levels of the chemical serotonin are too high within people who have social phobias. Researchers at the University of Uppsala in Sweden have conducted brain scans on volunteers who have social phobias, such as anxiety. They found that they had produced too much serotonin in their amygdala. The amygdala is a part of the brain's fear center. 

The more serotonin produced within the volunteers the more anxious they felt when exposed to social situations. Researcher Andreas Frick has stated that "Serotonin can increase anxiety, and not decrease it as was previously often assumed".  

What exactly is serotonin? Well, serotonin is a neurotransmitter in the brain which is responsible for regulating brain functions such as mood, appetite and sleep. They are commonly known as the "feel good factor". They are released when one has chocolate. Serotonin is produced by nerve cells and helps to relay message from one side of the brain to the other. 

There has been previous research studies which also show a positive correlation between the amount of serotonin and the levels of anxiety. They have shown that nerve activity in the amygdala is higher in people with social phobia. Furthermore is has been found that the fear centers within their brain are overly sensitive. This is said to be due to the high levels of serotonin. 

To this day social phobias have been treated with drugs such as selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors. This increases that amount of serotonin in the brain. Must these treatments be changed due to the recent findings of serotonin and social phobias? And what exactly do these finding mean to us. Must we lower our serotonin production? Should we stop eating chocolate?... I hope not. 

Food and Mental health

Recent studies have shown a possible link between food and social anxiety problems. Such types of foods being fermented foods, which have probiotics. This study is the first in its time that psychologists have decided to take the research further and continue exploring the connection between the mind and the stomach.  They will proceed by examining the data again to see whether there is a correlation between fermented food intake and autism symptoms. Although, this approach may not be valid, as it is difficult to establish a cause and affect of the data using correlation. However, correlation research has been deemed ethical as it enables the researchers to manipulate variables which would be unethical to manipulate in an laboratory setting.

Recent studies led by William and Mary researchers shows the stomach may play an important role in our mental health. 

Psychology professors have recently investigated a possible connection between fermented foods (which contain probiotics) and social anxiety. They found that young people who eat fermented foods have fewer social anxiety symptoms.

The researchers designed a questionnaire which was giving in the University of Maryland's introduction to Psychology, 700 students participated. The questionnaire asked students to detail the fermented foods they had consumed within the last 30 days. It also inquired about amount of exercise and their average intake of fruits and vegetables. This enables the researchers to take into account some external variables other than just fermented foods.

Within the first set of findings they found that students who ate more fermented foods had reduced social anxiety (show by neuroticism). The relationship was strongest amongst people who has higher levels of neuroticism.

The researchers are set to create an experimental version of the study in order to establish a cause and effect between eating fermented food and reduced social anxiety.

In conclusion the study is some what reliable, however, disadvantages would include the use of questionnaires as participants may fake their answers due to social desirability. Further more the study was only used on people of the same age group (University students) causing the study to lack population validity.

Introduction

Welcome all psychologists!

My name's Sindhu and I'm currently studying A2 level psychology and wish to continue the subject at University. The purpose of this blog is to share with you interesting information, as well as being a useful revision tool for all students who are also taking the subject for A2.

Enjoy!